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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 | <html><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"><title>Chapter 3. Generalized LR Parsing</title><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="fptools.css"><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1"><link rel="home" href="index.html" title="Happy User Guide"><link rel="up" href="index.html" title="Happy User Guide"><link rel="prev" href="sec-multiple-parsers.html" title="2.7. Generating Multiple Parsers From a Single Grammar"><link rel="next" href="sec-glr-using.html" title="3.2. Basic use of a Happy-generated GLR parser"></head><body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF"><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="3" align="center">Chapter 3. Generalized LR Parsing</th></tr><tr><td width="20%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="sec-multiple-parsers.html">Prev</a> </td><th width="60%" align="center"> </th><td width="20%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="sec-glr-using.html">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="sec-glr"></a>Chapter 3. Generalized LR Parsing</h1></div><div><p class="copyright">Copyright © 2004 University of Durham, Paul Callaghan, Ben Medlock</p></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="sec-glr.html#sec-glr-intro">3.1. Introduction</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="sec-glr-using.html">3.2. Basic use of a Happy-generated GLR parser</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-using.html#sec-glr-using-intro">3.2.1. Overview</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-using.html#sec-glr-using-main">3.2.2. The main function</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-using.html#sec-glr-using-input">3.2.3. The input</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-using.html#sec-glr-using-output">3.2.4. The Parse Result</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-using.html#sec-glr-using-compiling">3.2.5. Compiling the parser</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="sec-glr-semantics.html">3.3. Including semantic results</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-semantics.html#sec-glr-semantics-intro">3.3.1. Forms of semantics</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-semantics.html#sec-glr-semantics-tree">3.3.2. Tree decoding</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-semantics.html#sec-glr-semantics-label">3.3.3. Label decoding</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-semantics.html#sec-glr-semantics-tree-monad">3.3.4. Monadic tree decoding</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html">3.4. Further information</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-examples">3.4.1. The GLR examples</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-graphs">3.4.2. Viewing forests as graphs</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-applications">3.4.3. Some Applications of GLR parsing</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-workings">3.4.4. Technical details</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-filter">3.4.5. The <code class="option">--filter</code> option</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-limitations">3.4.6. Limitations and future work</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-acknowledgements">3.4.7. Thanks and acknowledgements</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></div><p>This chapter explains how to use the GLR parsing extension,
which allows <span class="application">Happy</span> to parse ambiguous
grammars and produce useful results.
This extension is triggered with the <code class="option">--glr</code> flag,
which causes <span class="application">Happy</span>
to use a different driver for the LALR(1) parsing
tables. The result of parsing is a structure which encodes compactly
<span class="emphasis"><em>all</em></span> of the possible parses.
There are two options for how semantic information is combined with
the structural information.
</p><p>
This extension was developed by Paul Callaghan and Ben Medlock
(University of Durham). It is based on the structural parser
implemented in Medlock's undergraduate project, but significantly
extended and improved by Callaghan.
Bug reports, comments, questions etc should be sent to
<code class="email"><<a class="email" href="mailto:P.C.Callaghan@durham.ac.uk">P.C.Callaghan@durham.ac.uk</a>></code>.
Further information can be found on Callaghan's
<a class="ulink" href="http://www.dur.ac.uk/p.c.callaghan/happy-glr" target="_top">GLR parser
page</a>.
</p><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="sec-glr-intro"></a>3.1. Introduction</h2></div></div></div><p>
Here's an ambiguous grammar. It has no information about the
associativity of <code class="literal">+</code>, so for example,
<code class="literal">1+2+3</code> can be parsed as
<code class="literal">(1+(2+3))</code> or <code class="literal">((1+2)+3)</code>.
In conventional mode, <span class="application">Happy</span>,
would complain about a shift/reduce
conflict, although it would generate a parser which always shifts
in such a conflict, and hence would produce <span class="emphasis"><em>only</em></span>
the first alternative above.
</p><pre class="programlisting">
E -> E + E
E -> i -- any integer
</pre><p>
GLR parsing will accept this grammar without complaint, and produce
a result which encodes <span class="emphasis"><em>both</em></span> alternatives
simultaneously. Now consider the more interesting example of
<code class="literal">1+2+3+4</code>, which has five distinct parses -- try to
list them! You will see that some of the subtrees are identical.
A further property of the GLR output is that such sub-results are
shared, hence efficiently represented: there is no combinatorial
explosion.
Below is the simplified output of the GLR parser for this example.
</p><pre class="programlisting">
Root (0,7,G_E)
(0,1,G_E) => [[(0,1,Tok '1'))]]
(0,3,G_E) => [[(0,1,G_E),(1,2,Tok '+'),(2,3,G_E)]]
(0,5,G_E) => [[(0,1,G_E),(1,2,Tok '+'),(2,5,G_E)]
,[(0,3,G_E),(3,4,Tok '+'),(4,5,G_E)]]
(0,7,G_E) => [[(0,3,G_E),(3,4,Tok '+'),(4,7,G_E)]
,[(0,1,G_E),(1,2,Tok '+'),(2,7,G_E)]
,[(0,5,G_E),(5,6,Tok '+'),(6,7,G_E)]}]
(2,3,G_E) => [[(2,3,Tok '2'))]}]
(2,5,G_E) => [[(2,3,G_E),(3,4,Tok '+'),(4,5,G_E)]}]
(2,7,G_E) => [[(2,3,G_E),(3,4,Tok '+'),(4,7,G_E)]}
,[(2,5,G_E),(5,6,Tok '+'),(6,7,G_E)]}]
(4,5,G_E) => [[(4,5,Tok '3'))]}]
(4,7,G_E) => [[(4,5,G_E),(5,6,Tok '+'),(6,7,G_E)]}]
(6,7,G_E) => [[(6,7,Tok '4'))]}]
</pre><p>
This is a directed, acyclic and-or graph.
The node "names" are of form <code class="literal">(a,b,c)</code>
where <code class="literal">a</code> and <code class="literal">b</code>
are the start and end points (as positions in the input string)
and <code class="literal">c</code> is a category (or name of grammar rule).
For example <code class="literal">(2,7,G_E)</code> spans positions 2 to 7
and contains analyses which match the <code class="literal">E</code>
grammar rule.
Such analyses are given as a list of alternatives (disjunctions),
each corresponding to some use of a production of that
category, which in turn are a conjunction of sub-analyses,
each represented as a node in the graph or an instance of a token.
</p><p>
Hence <code class="literal">(2,7,G_E)</code> contains two alternatives,
one which has <code class="literal">(2,3,G_E)</code> as its first child
and the other with <code class="literal">(2,5,G_E)</code> as its first child,
respectively corresponding to sub-analyses
<code class="literal">(2+(3+4))</code> and <code class="literal">((2+3)+4)</code>.
Both alternatives have the token <code class="literal">+</code> as their
second child, but note that they are difference occurrences of
<code class="literal">+</code> in the input!
We strongly recommend looking at such results in graphical form
to understand these points. If you build the
<code class="literal">expr-eval</code> example in the directory
<code class="literal">examples/glr</code> (NB you need to use GHC for this,
unless you know how to use the <code class="option">-F</code> flag for Hugs),
running the example will produce a file which can be viewed with
the <span class="emphasis"><em>daVinci</em></span> graph visualization tool.
(See <a class="ulink" href="http://www.informatik.uni-bremen.de/~davinci/" target="_top">http://www.informatik.uni-bremen.de/~davinci/</a>
for more information. Educational use licenses are currently
available without charge.)
</p><p>
The GLR extension also allows semantic information to be attached
to productions, as in conventional <span class="application">Happy</span>,
although there are further issues to consider.
Two modes are provided, one for simple applications and one for more
complex use.
See <a class="xref" href="sec-glr-semantics.html" title="3.3. Including semantic results">Section 3.3, “Including semantic results”</a>.
The extension is also integrated with <span class="application">Happy</span>'s
token handling, e.g. extraction of information from tokens.
</p><p>
One key feature of this implementation in Haskell is that its main
result is a <span class="emphasis"><em>graph</em></span>.
Other implementations effectively produce a list of trees, but this
limits practical use to small examples.
For large and interesting applications, some of which are discussed
in <a class="xref" href="sec-glr-misc.html#sec-glr-misc-applications" title="3.4.3. Some Applications of GLR parsing">Section 3.4.3, “Some Applications of GLR parsing”</a>, a graph is essential due
to the large number of possibilities and the need to analyse the
structure of the ambiguity. Converting the graph to trees could produce
huge numbers of results and will lose information about sharing etc.
</p><p>
One final comment. You may have learnt through using
<span class="application">yacc</span>-style tools that ambiguous grammars
are to be avoided, and that ambiguity is something that appears
only in Natural Language processing.
This is definitely not true.
Many interesting grammars are ambiguous, and with GLR tools they
can be used effectively.
We hope you enjoy exploring this fascinating area!
</p></div></div><div class="navfooter"><hr><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="sec-multiple-parsers.html">Prev</a> </td><td width="20%" align="center"> </td><td width="40%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="sec-glr-using.html">Next</a></td></tr><tr><td width="40%" align="left" valign="top">2.7. Generating Multiple Parsers From a Single Grammar </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html">Home</a></td><td width="40%" align="right" valign="top"> 3.2. Basic use of a Happy-generated GLR parser</td></tr></table></div></body></html>
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